Acolhua Alliance: Partners of the Aztec Empire
Note: The term "Aztec" is commonly used today to describe the civilization that flourished in the Valley of Mexico during the Postclassic period. Historically, the people referred to by this name called themselves "Mexica." The origin of this name is subject to various interpretations: some believe it derives from a leader or deity named Metztli, others suggest it was bestowed by the deity Huitzilopochtli, and another hypothesis links it to the maguey goddess, Mectli. Additionally, the term "Aztec" was later attributed to them, suggesting their origin from the mythical place Aztlán, and has since become widespread in historical texts.
It is well known that the Aztecs dominated 15th and early 16th century central Mexico. To achieve such an achievement the Aztecs didn't do it alone. Mesoamerica was filled with hundreds of cultures, all interacting with each other sometimes as foes fighting for power or as allies joining a common goal or beneficial arrangement. In the case of the Aztecs, their biggest ally was the Acolhuas of Texcoco. The Acolhuas once had their moment of dominance in the Valley of Mexico, but a power struggle in the 15th century would lead Texcoco to join Tenochtitlán to overcome a common enemy. The Acolhua would play a major role in the politics of the Valley of Mexico and the conquest of Mexico. Still, the Acolhuas are often ignored or overshadowed by the Aztecs. The following article will briefly discuss the impact and history of the Acolhuas.
Figure 1. The Symbols of the Three Altepemeh "Cities" of the Aztec Triple Alliance - Codex Osuna.
Who Were the Acolhua?
In the early 16th century, the Valley of Mexico was a multi-ethnic melting pot of different cultures. The majority of the inhabitants were Náhuatl speakers and a significant unrelated linguistic population of Otomí speakers. Despite most of the cultures having a common language they were not all united but acted as separate people competing with each other. While the Aztecs/Mexicas founded Tenochtitlán on an island in Lake Texcoco in 1325, the Acolhuas settled in the valley before the Mexicas around the 1200s at Coatlinchan on the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco.
Figure 2. Notable Cities and Cultures in the Valley of Mexico in the early 16th century, Map by Jonathan Rodriguez.
The Arrival of the Alcolhuas in the Valley of Mexico
Before their arrival, the Acolhuas like the Mexica and other sister tribes were from Aztlán. All of them headed south at different times and most of them found a new home along Lake Texcoco, while others ventured further south. Once entering the Valley of Mexico, these new people were seen as barbarians by the civilized remnants of the Toltec Empire. Through intermarriages, many would integrate into these Toltec cities and become “civilized”.
At the time the Acolhuas arrived, another nomadic migrant group known as the Chichimecas had controlled the region after becoming "civilized" by integrating into Toltec society through both conquest and intermarriage. The Chichimecas led by King Xolotl had established a kingdom at Tenayuca on the northern shores of Lake Texcoco. According to early colonial scholar Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, the Acolhuas had asked Xolotl permission to settle in the region. Xolotl gave them the city of Coatlinchan. The Acolhuas grew and expanded into cities of the northwestern region of the Valley of Mexico. Notable cities included Acolman, Huexotla, Teotihuacan, Otumba, Tezoyucan, Chiauhtla, Otumba, Tepexpen, Tepetlaoztoc and Texcoco. The Acolhuas would be integrated and soon embraced their Toltec-Chichimeca heritage. The area of the Acolhuas would become known as Acolhuacan.
Figure 3. The Tenayuca Pyramid. Photo by Jonathan Rodriguez.
The Seeds of the Aztec Triple Alliance
As King Xolotl established his empire and bloodline that spread among the different cultures through intermarriages, this would lead two rival kingdoms to challenge each other as the rightful heir to King Xolotl’s legacy. His descendants were the Tepenaca King Tezozomoc of Azcapotzalco and the Acolhua King Ixtlilxochitl I of Texcoco. As the two waged war on each other for years, the Tepanecas would capture Texcoco in 1418 with the assistance of the Mexicas who were vassals to Azcapotzalco. King Ixtlilxochitl I would be killed, but his legacy would continue as his son fled and went into hiding. His son would undoubtedly become the biggest influence on the success of the Aztec Empire; his name was Nezahualcoyotl.
At the time of his father’s death, Nezahualcoyotl was 16 years old. Despite Nezahualcoyotl’s young age, Tezozomoc had great fear he would return for vengeance. After many years Nezahualcoyotl was able to come live among his Mexica noble relatives in Tenochtitlan as his mother was the daughter of the previous Aztec king Huitzilihuitl. Under the protection of the Mexicas, Nezahualcoyotl learned greatly about Mexica culture and his ties to his Mexica ancestry grew.
The Ascent of Nezahualcoyotl
Figure 4. Nezahualcoyotl in Battle from Codex Ixtlilxochitl.
By this time relations with Tenochtitlan and Azcapotzalco had been deteriorating for years. The final blow was in 1427 after the death of Tezozomoc. The sons of Tezozomoc, Tayatzin, and Maxtla fought for the throne of Azcapotzalco. Maxtla would succeed and Tayatzin would die along with the Aztec king Chimalpopoca who supported Tayatzin. This was the golden opportunity Nezahualcoyotl saw to end the legacy of Tezozomoc. In 1428 Nezahualcoyotl would unite with his uncle Itzcoatl, the new Aztec King, and convince other nations like Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo to end the Tepanec Empire. Nezahualcoyotl led the charge to take back the Acolhua cities on the eastern shores of Lake Texcoco before joining the Mexicas at Tenochtitlán to lead the attack at Azcapotzalco. After 115 days of conflict, Azcapotzalco was captured. Maxtla was found hiding in his gardens. Nezahualcoyotl hauled him out and cut out his heart in the city plaza as compensation for his father's death. The remaining forces would flee to Coyohuacan and Tlacopan; however Tlacopan would easily accept its surrender due to the Lord of the City, Totoquihuaztli I, having secretly supported Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl.
After the Tepaneca-Mexica War Nezahualcoyotl stayed in Tenochtitlan to assist the Mexicas in various development projects such as constructing an aqueduct. Due to his absence at Texcoco, rival nobles failed to recognize Nezahuacoyotl as ruler of Texcoco. After recapturing Texcoco Nezahualcoyotl would finally be crowned as the ruler of Texcoco in 1431. Afterward seeking to extend his power in Mesoamerica, Nezahualcoyotl convinced Itzcoatl to include Tlacopan as part of a Triple Alliance due to Totoquihuaztli I having supported them and surrender during their fight against Azcapotzalco but also the heritage of Tepaneca royalty among the cities of the Valley. The spoils of war would be divided in different percentages between the three cities in future conquest. This union ship would last until the arrival of the Conquistadors.
Nezahualcoyotl would transform Texcoco into the art capital of the Aztec Empire. Nezahualcoyotl would go on to become not only a great war leader but a poet, lawmaker, and engineer as he designed the dike system of Tenochtitlan to divide fresh water with saltine water in Lake Texcoco. His son Nezahualpilli would take the throne after his father died in 1472.
Division Among the Brothers
With the death of Nezahualpilli in 1515, relations between Tenochtitlán and Texcoco entered a dangerous and fragile state. Three half-brothers Cacamatzin, Coanacoch, and Ixtlilxochitl II were all suitable candidates for the position of ruling Acolhuacan. The crown was given to Cacamatzin, perhaps due to the support and influence of his uncle, Aztec ruler Moctezuma II, who had sought to further control Texcoco. Coanacoch accepted but Ixtlilxochitl II was so angered by the decision he left Texcoco for Metztitlan to begin his rebellion. Gaining substantial support, Ixtlilxochitl II took control of Otumba and other cities in the northern region of Acolhuacan. Ixtlilxochitl Il's army reached Texcoco only to stop and propose a divide between the two territories they now controlled. The three brothers agreed to divide the Acolhucan into three areas for each one to control. The civil war had ended but created a major rip into Mexica and Acolhua relations. Ixtlilxochitl II would not forgive Moctezuma II for meddling in the elections.
The Arrival of Hernán Cortés
Only a few years later in 1519 when the Conquistadors landed in Veracruz and marched to Tenochtitlán, Emperor Moctezuma II requested Cacamatzin and other lords to strategize on how to proceed with the new strangers. By the time Hernan Cortes reached the outskirts of Texcoco, he had already gained a force of native allies, especially from Tlaxcala to accompany him. Ixtlilxochitl II would greet Hernan Cortes outside of Texcoco as an ally, perhaps plotting his revenge against the Aztec ruler. Days later the conquistadors were welcomed by Moctezuma II and stayed in Tenochtitlán, only to be captured by them. Cacamatzin and other nobility became prisoners as well in their own homes. This allowed Cortes to use Moctezuma II as a puppet to control the city and demand gold. After months tensions naturally grew and the conquistadors wore out their welcome, especially after the massacre of Toxcatl resulting in the death of many unarmed citizens and nobility on May 22, 1520. With the support of Moctezuma II's brother Cuitlahuac, Cacamatzin sought a rebellion against Hernan Cortes; however, once Cortes heard of such a plot Cacamatzin was arrested and later killed along with Moctezuma II under Spanish supervision during the events that led the battle of La Noche Triste.
The conquistadors fled the city as almost all of their countrymen and native allies had perished during their retreat. Cuitlahuac would become the new ruler of Tenochtitlán as Coanacoch would become the ruler of Texcoco after killing his Spanish-appointed brother Cuicuizcatl. Texcoco was once again aligned and loyal to Tenochtitlán. During this time, Cuitlahuac had died from Smallpox which begun to ravage Tenochtitlan. Soon after, Cuauhtémoc was installed as the new ruler of Tenochtitlán. Cortes was rebuilding his army and gaining further support from none other than Ixtlilxochitl II. Cortes and his army had attacked Texcoco causing Coanacoch to flee to Tenochtitlan. Tecocoltzin was the new ruler of Texcoco who supported the conquistadors and allowed Texcoco to become the base to attack Tenochtitlan. Coanacoch and other Mexica loyal Acolhua nobility fought alongside the Mexica during the fall of Tenochtitlan while of course Ixtlilxochitl II and his Spanish Acolhua sympathizers were fighting for their interests.
The assistance of Texcoco was certainly a major reason for conquistador’s success. Cortes had entered at a time of fragile stability among the Acolhuas. As portions of the Acolhua population were already divided from the elections of 1515. We can assure ourselves that besides the nobility, many Acolhuas fought against and for the conquistadors. Many times, we see cities being resistant only until after their defeat and new rulers are installed do they support the conquistadors often due to their best political interest.
What Happened to the Acolhuas?
With the Fall of Tenochtitlán in 1521, Ixtlilxochitl II received much praise and benefits for his assistance to the conquistadors. He would become the ruler of Texcoco after the death of Tecocoltzin who had a short reign. Christianity spread among the Acolhuas as it was supported by Ixtlilxochitl II. Puppet Acolhua noble rulers would continue to rule Texcoco into the mid-16th century. The remaining Triple Alliance rulers Cuauhtémoc (Tenochtitlan) Tetlepanquetzal (Tlacopan) Coanacoch (Texcoco) and related members of the nobility would all be executed or die in 1524 on an expedition to Central America. The Spaniards had feared that there might be an Aztec revolt if those leaders had been left in Mexico City (Tenochtitlán). Further assistance from the Acolhuas did not end after the fall of Tenochtitlán, as the Acolhuas became auxiliary soldiers for the conquistadors beyond Central Mexico. In fact, that is why there is a city in El Salvador called Mejicanos after Tlaxcalteca, Mexica and Acolhua soldiers who had settled in El Salvador during the conquest period.
Figure 6. Acolhua Diaspora - Map by Jonathan Rodriguez.
The Legacy of the Acolhuas
We also find Acolhuas migrating to northern Mexico in Zacatecas as mining laborers where they established a barrio called El Nino. We can assume that many other Acolhuas journeyed to many other colonial cities throughout Mexico. Over the next few centuries, the Acolhuas became part of Mexican society (in the same way that the Aztecs did). Their descendants became mestizos or part of the modern-day Nahua culture. But their biggest legacy is without doubt their Poet King Nezahualcoyotl as statues are seen of him throughout the country and there is also a city named after him near Mexico City.
Figure 7. Statue of Nezahualcoyotl at the Museo del Ejército y Fuerza Aérea Mexicanos CDMX – Photo by Jonathan Rodriguez.
Bibliography
Sources:
Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Fernando de, Amber Brian, Bradley Benton, Peter B. Villella, and Pablo García Loaeza. History of the Chichimeca Nation: Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl’s seventeenth-century chronicle of ancient Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.
Benton, Bradley Thomas. The Lords of Tetzcoco: The Transformation of Indigenous Rule in Postconquest Central Mexico. Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Gibson. The Aztecs under Spanish Rule. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1964.
Lee, Jongsoo. The Allure of Nezahualcoyotl: Pre-Hispanic History, Religion, and Nahua Poetics. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2015.
León Portilla, Miguel, Angel María Garibay K., and Alberto Beltrán. Visión de los Vencidos: Relaciones Indígenas de la Conquista. México: Universidad National Autónoma de México, 2020.