Estado de Mexico’s Indigenous Past and Present
Location and Physical Description
The State of México is located in the center-south section of the Mexican Republic. This landlocked state has common boundaries with Querétaro de Arteaga and Hidalgo on the north, Puebla and Tlaxcala on the east, Distrito Federal, Guerrero and Morelos on the south and Michoacán de Ocampo on the west. The capital of México is Toluca de Lerdo, which had a population of 819,561 in 2010, making it the fifth largest city in the entire Republic of México.
With a population of 16,187,608 in the 2010 census, México contains 13.5% of the total population of the Mexican Republic and has the largest population of all the states. However, with an area of only 22,351 square kilometers, México has only 1.1% of the national territory and is the sixth smallest state in the Republic, with only Hidalgo, Querétaro, Colima, Aguascalientes, Morelos and Tlaxcala containing a small area.
In contrast, Mexico’s largest state, Chihuahua, contains a total of 247,455 square kilometers, occupying 12.6% of the national territory, but contains only 3.17% of the national population. Politically, the state of México is divided into 125 municipios. The capital of the Estado de México is Toluca de Lerdo, which had a population of 489,333 in 2010.
Physical Description
Physically, mountains cover over 42% of the surface of the State of Mexico, while plains, low hills and valleys cover almost 57% of the state. The following four major mountain systems cross the state:
The Sierra Nevada on the border with the state of Puebla, where the Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanoes are present, which are the second and third highest peaks in Mexico.
The mountain ranges of Monte Alto and Monte Bajo, which border on the Federal District.
The Xinantécatl mountain range is near the center of the entity where the Nevado de Toluca volcano — the fourth highest peak in Mexico — is located.
The Sierra de San Andrés Timilpan is located in the northwest of the state.
Physiographic Provinces
The state belongs to three physiographic provinces. The Eje Neovolcánico (Neovolcanic Axis) is a mountainous volcanic region that occupies more than three-quarters (76%) of the state’s northern, central and eastern territory. This province is made up of large volcanic mountains with interspersed plains and lake basins. This feature — also known as the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt — is a volcanic belt that crosses central Mexico from Colima and Jalisco in the west to central Veracruz in the east. Several of its highest peaks have snow all year long.
The Sierra Madre del Sur covers almost one-quarter of the state territory exclusively in the southwestern portion of the state. Also in the southern part of the state is the Depresíon de Balsas, which takes its name from the major river draining the region, which is made up of small, irregular basins interrupted by hilly outcrops. The state’s physiographic provinces are illustrated in the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) map below:
The Valley of México
Today – as in the past – México City, the Distrito Federal (Federal District), and the State of México represent the economic, cultural and political center of the Mexican Republic. The Valley of México is a large internally drained basin that is surrounded by towering mountain ranges, including the Popocatépetl (Smoking Mountain) and Iztaccíhuatl (Mountain of White Woman) volcanoes. The Valley had been the heartland of Aztec civilization and center of the Aztec Empire of the early Sixteenth Century.
The Valley of Mexico is actually part of the Mesa Central, which covers large parts of Michoacán, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Hidalgo, and México states and the Federal District (Mexico City). This plateau in the vicinity of Mexico City rises 7,000–9,000 feet (2,100–2,700 meters) and its intermontane basins are separated by eroded volcanic peaks.
The following map shows the location of the Valley of Mexico within the nation of Mexico and places its location at the higher elevation of the Central Mesa that runs through the central part of Mexico [Newebcreations, “Valley of Mexico Map.” Online: https://maps-mexico-city.com/valley-of-mexico-map].
México City itself was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, which was the capital of the Aztec Empire. Over the millennia the Valley of México’s inhabitants have included the ancient Aztec (Mexica), Toltec and Chichimeca tribes, cultures which left a wealth of relics and ruins in the area that continue to attract and amaze tourists.
The Meaning of the Word “Aztec”
Several terms have been used to designate the various indigenous groups that lived in the Valley of México. The popular term, Aztec, has been used as an all-inclusive term to describe both the people and the empire. The noted anthropologist, Professor Michael E. Smith of the University of New York, uses the term Aztec Empire to describe “the empire of the Triple Alliance, in which Tenochtitlán played the dominant role.” In short, the reader should recognize that the Aztec Indians were not one ethnic group, but a collection of many ethnicities, all sharing a common cultural and historical background.
The Náhuatl People
Today, the Náhuatl people are the single largest indigenous group of central Mexico. It is believed that the earliest Nahua speakers arrived in the Valley of Mexico as early as 900 A.D. According to Aztec legends, over a period of time, seven tribes that lived in the northwest in a place called Aztlán-Chicomoztoc (or “the place of the seven caves”) journeyed to and settled in the Valley of Mexico and surrounding areas. The Náhuatl-speaking tribes who inhabited the area now considered the State of Mexico and the Distrito Federal are described as follows:
The Xochimilca — The Xochimilca were the first Náhuatl tribe to arrive in the Valley of Mexico, settling around 900 A.D. in Cuahilama, near what is now Santa Cruz Acalpixca (in Mexico City). They were eventually subdued by the Mexica and became part of the Aztec Empire.
The Chalca of Chalco — The Chalca were the second tribe to arrive in the Valley. They established themselves east of the Xochimilca about 25 km (16 miles) east of Tenochtitlán. Chalco was conquered by the Aztecs around 1465 and is now in the eastern part of Mexico State.
The Tepaneca — The Tepanecs or Tepaneca were the third tribe to arrive in the Valley of Mexico in the late 12th or early 13th centuries. They settled in Azcapotzalco on the northwest shore of Lake Texcoco in the present-day Distrito Federal. In 1428, Tepaneca became part of the Aztec Empire.
The Acolhua of Texcoco — The fourth tribe to arrive in the area, the Acolhua, settled on the northeastern shore of the Lake Texcoco. They occupied most of the eastern Basin of the Valley of Mexico, with their capital in Texcoco. Today, Texcoco is a city and municipio located in the State of Mexico, about 25 km (15 miles) northeast of Mexico City.
The Mexica — The Mexica, according to Professor Smith, were “the inhabitants of the cities of Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco.” They were the last of the Náhuatl-speaking groups to arrive in the Valley of Mexico and they eventually became the masters of the Aztec Empire.
Emperor Moctezuma II Xocoyotl
In 1502, Moctezuma II Xocoyotl (the Younger) ascended to the throne of Tenochtitlán as the newly elected tlatoani (ruler). It was about this time when the Mexica of Tenochtitlán began to suffer various disasters. While tribute peoples in several parts of the empire started to rebel against Aztecs, troubling omens took place, which led the Mexica to believe that their days were numbered. Seventeen years after Moctezuma’s rise to power, the Aztec Empire would be faced with its greatest challenge and a huge coalition of indigenous and alien forces, which would bring an end to the Triple Alliance.
The Aztec Empire of 1519
The Aztec Empire of 1519 was one of the most powerful Mesoamerican kingdoms of all time. By this time, the island city of Tenochtitlán had become a city of about 300,000 citizens. And the Aztec Empire itself ruled over about 80,000 square miles of territory extending from the Gulf of México to the Pacific Ocean, and southward to Oaxaca. This empire contained some 15 million people, living in thirty-eight provinces. In all, the Emperor received the tribute of 489 communities.
The map on the following page shows the Aztec Empire in 1519, including the empire’s three major cities (The Triple Alliance: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan) [Source: Comandante, Wikipedia U. E. “Aztec Empire.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Online: https://www.ancient.eu/image/2321/ (Last modified February 26, 2014)].
The Otomí Indians (The Sierra Nahñu)
At the time of the Spanish contact, the Otomíes (who call themselves Nahñu, or Hñahñu) occupied the greater part of Querétaro and smaller parts of Guanajuato, the northwestern portion of Hidalgo and parts of the state of México. At one time, the Otomí held a great deal of power and prestige throughout east central Mexico. However, the rise of the Aztec Empire caused a decline of the Otomíes during the fourteenth Century. Nahñu belongs to the Otopamean language family, a subfamily of the very large Otomanguean Linguistic Group. (Most of the Oaxacan indigenous groups — including the Zapotecs and Mixtecs — belong to this language family.)
It is believed that the Otomí may have been the earliest inhabitants of the Valley of México. They were the only major indigenous group in the Valley of México who spoke a language other than Náhuatl. They had probably arrived in the Valley from the west after the destruction of Tula (circa 1170). Xaltocan, in the northern part of the Valley, was the capital of Otomí Empire during its prime in the mid-Thirteenth Century. However, the Otomí declined in power and prestige during the Fourteenth Century, after having lost wars with the Mexica.
Mazahua
The Mazahua — a principal tribe of the Otomian linguistic family — live in the western portion of the State of México, as well as some adjoining territory in Michoacán, Querétaro and southwestern Hidalgo.
The Mazahua are believed to have been among the original tribes who migrated to central México during the Thirteenth Century. In 1521, Hernán Cortés – after subduing the Mexica – consolidated his power by sending Gonzalo de Sandoval to subdue all resistance among the Aztec neighbors: the Mazahuas, Matlatzincas and Otomies. Very quickly, Gonzalo de Sandoval brought the Mazahua Indians under Spanish control, and the Franciscan missionaries played a prominent role in bringing Christianity to their people.
Matlatzinca
The Matlatzinca Indians inhabited the broad valley that extends from México-Tenochtitlan to the western border of the state of México and today encompasses significant portions of Michoacán, Guerrero and México. The Matlatzinca probably arrived in the Valley around the Sixth Century, but were conquered and incorporated in the Aztec Empire in 1474. The Matlatzinca speak an Otopamean language that is related to Otomí and Mazahua.
The Conquest
After a two-year campaign, Spanish forces under Hernán Cortés ‒ assisted by a coalition of allied indigenous forces ‒ captured Tenochtitlán in August 1521. With the destruction of the Aztec Empire, the territories within it devolved to the control of the Spaniards.
The New Alliance
But the conquest gave way to a new alliance of the surviving Aztecs and the Spaniards. As Spanish military expeditions set out north, south and west of Tenochtitlán, they brought with them their newly converted indigenous allies who served as interpreters, scouts, emissaries, soldiers and settlers. Because of their previous trading and military relationships, the former subjects of the Aztec Empire became invaluable to the Spaniards because of their knowledge of the people living in other areas of Mexico. Thus, the Náhuatl tongue became the other “lingua franca” (besides Spanish) of Mexico. To this day, locations in every corner of Mexico have Náhuatl place names.
The Colonial Period
For three full centuries (1521-1821), México City and the surrounding jurisdiction underwent a period of integration, assimilation, and Hispanization. This period – which is not the focus of this work – has been discussed in many books. One particularly informative source about the cultural and social development of central México is James Lockhart’s The Náhuas after the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central México, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries (published in 1992 by the Stanford University Press). Another useful source to consult on this topic would be Charles Gibson’s The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of México 1519-1810 (published by the Stanford University Press in 1964).
Political Developments
Mexico became a state on October 3, 1824 by the General Congress. However, Mexico would later be apportioned and fragmented successively for the creation of the Federal District in 1823, Guerrero in 1849, as well as Hidalgo and Morelos in 1869.
The 1895 Census
The first national Mexican Census took place on October 20, 1895. The Mexican Census of 1895 provides us with our first window into the prevalence of indigenous languages in the State of Mexico. Out of a population of 842,873 people in 1895, 158,335 spoke an indigenous language, representing 18.8% of the total population of the State. As noted in the table below, Otomí and Mazahua were spoken by seven in ten (70.3%) of the indigenous language speakers.
Although the State of Mexico represented the center of Aztec / Náhuatl culture for several centuries, the language of the Aztecs was consigned to third place in the list of indigenous languages spoken in Mexico in 1895. In fact, as revealed in the following graphic, only 6.8% of Náhuatl speakers in the entire country lived in the State of Mexico. However, more than one-quarter (28.1%) of the indigenous speakers in the entire state were Náhuatl speakers.
It is also noteworthy that four states in 1895 – Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo and Guerrero – were the home to 76.4% of all Mexican Náhuatl speakers. Estado de Mexico had the fifth largest number of Náhuatl speakers.
The Otomí Language in 1895
The Mexican Census of 1895 also provides us with an early window into the usage of the Otomí language in the entire Mexican Republic. As revealed in the following graphic, the State of Mexico had the second largest number of Otomí speakers in the entire country, accounting for nearly one-third (30.6%) of those living in the Mexican Republic.
The 1921 Census
The 1921 census asked citizens of each state to classify themselves in several categories, including “indígena pura” (pure indigenous), “indígena mezclada con blanca” (indigenous mixed with white) and “blanca” (white). The table below illustrates the contrast in the census classifications between the State of México and the Mexican Republic as a whole.
In the 1921 Mexican census, the state of México boasted a population of 884,617, of which 372,703 persons claimed to be of pure indigenous background, representing 42.1% of the total. An even larger number — 422,001, or 47.7% — classified themselves as being mixed, while only 88,660 (10%) considered themselves to be white. While 42.1% of the inhabitants of this state considered themselves to be of pure indigenous descent, less than half — 172,863, or 46.4% — actually spoke an indigenous language.
Indigenous Growth (1930-2000)
The number of indigenous speakers recorded in each Mexican census and their growth trends can be influenced by many factors, including fecundity, mortality and migration, which have a direct impact on any population. However, another important factor is an indigenous person’s self-awareness in relation to their community. While some indigenous speakers have a great deal of pride in their spoken language, for others the declaration of speaking another tongue to a census taker may be inappropriate and stigmatizing. And, over time, the transmission of an indigenous language is difficult to maintain in the face of the dominant Spanish tongue, especially for those who migrate to other areas.
In the following table, the indigenous speaking population of the State of Mexico for four selected census years are shown. Over this period of 70 years, there was a very slow increase in the total number of indigenous speakers in the state, but a significant decline in the percentage of indigenous speakers from 22.38% in 1930 to only 3.26% in 2000.
Estado de Mexico in the 2000 Census
According to the 2000 census, the population of persons five years and more who spoke indigenous languages in the State of México totaled 361,972 individuals. A large range of languages is spoken in the state of México, many of them imported from southern or eastern Mexican states. The most common indigenous languages spoken was the Mazahua tongue, with a total of 113,424 indigenous speakers, representing 31.3% of all the indigenous speakers five years of age and over in the state.
The second most common language was the Otomí, spoken by 104,357 indigenous speakers, and representing 28.8% of the total indigenous speaking population. The most common languages spoken in the 2000 census in the State of Mexico were:
Mazahua
The Mazahua Indians – representing the most populous indigenous-speaking group in México – primarily occupy thirteen municipios in the northwestern portion of the state of México. Mazahuas also inhabit some municipios in the center of the state, as well as parts of eastern Michoacán. They are a division of the Oto-Manguean linguistic group and are related by both culture and language to the Otomí, from whom they are descended.
Today, most of the Mazahua are engaged in agricultural pursuits, specifically the growing of maize, pumpkin, maguey and frijol. In the years since the Conquest, the Mazahua population has evolved and its cultural elements, social organization, and religion have developed into a hybrid culture drawing from several cultural elements. No one is certain about the origin of the word Mazahua, but some have suggested that it is derived from the Náhuatl term, mázatl, meaning “deer.”
The Mazahua make up a significant portion of the population of several municipios in the state. In the municipio of Atlacomulco, the population of Mazahua speakers five years of age and over in 2000 consisted of 10,709 individuals, making up 17.1% of the population of the municipio. In the municipio of Donato Guerra, 5,419 Mazahuas represented 24% of the population of the municipio. In Ixtlahuaca, 19,203 Mazahuas represented 19.8% of the total population.
Otomí
The Otomí are the second largest linguistic group in México state. They call themselves “Hñahñu,” the word Otomí having been given to them by the Spanish. Otomí are a very diverse indigenous group, living in many communities throughout Central México and speaking a great variety of dialects, some of which are not mutually intelligible. Like the Mazahuas, they belong to the Oto-Manguean linguistic group. Significant numbers of Otomies occupied 14 of the 121 municipios in the state of México, most of these municipios being located in the northwest (Atlacomulco-Timilpan) and in the center (Toluca-Lerma).
Náhuatl
Although the Náhuatl-speaking population is the most populous group in the entire Mexican Republic, they are ranked third place in the state of México, with more than 15% of the total indigenous-speaking population.
Migrant Labor in Estado de Mexico
The influence of migrant labor is particularly significant to the state of Mexico. Out a total population of 13,096,686 (of all ages) in the 2000 census, 5,059,089 individuals – or 38.6% – were born in another political entity than the state of México. The primary states contributing to México’s migrant population were – in numerical order – the Federal District (more than 3 million people), Puebla (295,889 migrants), Oaxaca (256,786), Hidalgo (256,718), and Michoacán (231,811). Oaxaca’s significant contribution amounted to 5.1% of the migrant pool, which explains why the Mixteco and Zapoteco languages from Oaxaca are the fourth and fifth most common indigenous groups in the state.
Estado de Mexico in the 2010 Census
Nearly two-thirds (72.8 percent) of México State’s 379,075 indigenous speakers 3 years and older in the 2010 census spoke three languages: Mazahua, Otomi and Náhuatl. The following table shows the most spoken language in the state:
Otomí Speakers in Mexico (2010)
In the 2010 Mexican census, 284,992 Otomí speakers 5 years of age and more lived throughout the Mexican Republic, and 74% lived in either Hidalgo or Mexico State. As noted in the following table, only 4% of the Otomí speakers in the entire Mexican Republic were monolingual (not speaking Spanish), but the Otomies in Veracruz and Puebla had higher levels of monolingualism (16% in both states):
Mexico’s 2015 Intercensal Survey
In 2016, the Mexican government agency, Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía e Informática (INEGI), published the 2015 Intercensal Survey, which upgraded Mexico’s socio-demographic information to the midpoint between the 2010 census and the census to be carried out in 2020. With a sample size of over 6 million homes, this survey provides information on the national, state and municipio level, as of March 15th, 2015.
The government map below shows the location of indigenous pueblos within the State of Mexico as of 2015 [Atlas de los pueblos indígenas de México. – Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas / INALI. Estado de Mexico: Distribución por Entidad Federativa: Pueblos Indígenas con Mayor Presencia en la Entidad. 2018. Online: http://atlas.cdi.gob.mx/?page_id=7211].
The Enduring Legacy of Central Mexico’s Indigenous People
Nearly five hundred years after the conquest and destruction of the Aztec Empire, the culture, language and spirit of the Náhuatl, Otomí, Mazahua and other indigenous peoples remains intact within the central Hispanic culture to which most of them also belong. It is worth noting that, although the Mexica capital Tenochtitlán was occupied after an eighty-day siege, many of the indigenous peoples of Central México quietly submitted to Spanish tutelage. In this way, they were given an opportunity to continue speaking their languages and to retain some elements of their original culture, while becoming an integral and important part of a new society. The legacy of Central Mexico’s indigenous people lives on.
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