Indigenous Puebla: Land of the Náhuatl Speakers
Puebla de Zaragoza is a landlocked state in east central Mexico. It is surrounded by Veracruz on the northeast, Hidalgo on the northwest, Tlaxcala on the west, Estado de México on the west and southwest, Morelos on the southwest, Guerrero on the south and Oaxaca on the south and southeast. Politically, Located on the central plateau southeast of Mexico City, Puebla is divided in 217 municipios and has an area of 34,306 square kilometers (13,245 square miles), making it the 21st largest Mexican state (1.7% of the national territory).
However, Puebla is ranked fifth in population among the Mexican states, with a 2010 population of 6,168,883 (which represents 5.2% of Mexico’s national population). The capital of Puebla is Heroica Puebla de Zaragoza, which boasted a population of 1,434,062 in 2010, the third largest city in the Mexican Republic. The capital city of Puebla was made famous by an important battle fought in 1862 against invading French forces.
The Geography of Puebla
Puebla de Zaragoza has a roughly triangular shape with its narrow part to the north. The state is dominated by mountains of the Sierra Madre Oriental, but large valleys lay between the ranges. Mountains cover over 60% of the state’s surface and plains cover another 20%. The State of Puebla consists of four geographic regions, which are described below and illustrated in the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) map on the following page:
The Sierra Madre Oriental Mountains of the north consist of a high plateau and mountains that take up 13.87% of the state. It is the most isolated area of the state and contains the highest percentage of indigenous peoples.
Llanura Costera del Golfo Norte (The Coastal Plain of the North Gulf) covers 0.75% of Puebla in the northeast reaches of the state. This plain is part of the humid coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico that extends west from Veracruz.
Eje Neovolcánico (The Neovolcanic Axis) covers 69.25% of the state territory and is made up of large volcanic mountains with interspersed plains and lake basins. This volcanic belt stretches across all of the central part of the state and is ringed by four volcanoes, all with elevations over 14,600. The region is the most industrialized area of the state and includes the capital city, Heroica Puebla. The entire Neovolcanic Axis — also known as the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt — crosses central Mexico from Colima and Jalisco in the west to central Veracruz in the east.
The Sierra Madre del Sur makes us 16.13% of Puebla’s land mass, covering the extreme south and southeast of the entity and characterized by dry mountains and verdant river valleys.
The small state of Tlaxcala lies just north of Heroica Puebla and is surrounded by the State of Puebla on all sides, except the northwest. As will be discussed below, Tlaxcala has played an important role in Puebla’s indigenous history.
The Ancient City of Cholula
The City of Cholula — located in the center west of the State of Puebla, nine miles west of capital city of Puebla de Zaragoza — was the most important settlement of ancient Puebla. Established sometime between 800 and 200 B.C., Cholula is believed to be the oldest continually inhabited city in all of Mexico.
By 100 B.C., the Olmecs had developed Cholula into one of Mexico’s most active cities. During that period they began building the immense monument known as the Great Pyramid of Cholula. One of the largest pyramids in the world, it stands 55 meters (181 feet) tall with a base that measures over 396 meters (1,300 feet) on each side. Similar to the fate of Teotihuacán to the northwest, Cholula was mostly abandoned around 800 A.D. for unknown reasons.
In the 10th century, Cholula was taken over by the Putún Maya, also known as Olmeca-Xicalanca. During the 12th century, a Toltec-Chichimec tribe settled in the area, and in 1292 Náhuatl-speaking tribes, including remnants of the Toltec nation, successfully invaded and occupied Cholula.
The Emergence of the Aztec Empire
Starting in 1325, the Mexica — who spoke Náhuatl and inhabited the Valley of Mexico to the west of what is now Puebla — had begun spreading out from their base of power in Tenochtitlán, located about 87 kilometers (54 miles) northwest of Cholula. The Mexica and their powerful Aztec Empire subdued neighboring city-states and compelled their new subjects to surrender part of their production as tribute. Eventually, the Aztecs incorporated into their empire much of what is known today as Puebla. Faced with the Aztec threat, the people of Cholula surrendered to the Aztecs. However, thirty kilometers (19 miles) to the north, the City of Tlaxcala stood firm against the Aztecs.
The Indigenous Peoples of Puebla
Before the Spaniards arrived, most of central Puebla was dominated by the Náhuatl speakers as the Aztec Empire spread its tentacles through the region. In the south, Acatlán and Chinantla were dominated by the Mixtecs, who represented an even stronger force in neighboring Oaxaca. Another region in the south, Tepexi, was dominated by the Popolocas. The north of Puebla was populated by the Totonacs, Mazatecs and Otomi. During, the 15th Century, the Aztecs gained control of most of these areas, as they moved eastward towards the Gulf Coast and what is now known as the State of Veracruz. The present-day state of Puebla was primarily occupied by two Aztec provinces, Ahuatlan and Tepeacac.
The Tlaxcalans
Although Tlaxcala is an independent state today, it is important to the historical development of its larger neighbor because most of the state is cradled by and almost entirely surrounded by Puebla, as can be seen on the map at the following link:
http://www.mapainteractivo.net/fotos/mapa-de-puebla.html
Living in the Shadow of the Aztec Empire
The Tlaxcalans represented a major thorn in the side of the Mexica and their nation evolved into an independent enclave deep in the heart of the Aztec Empire. Surrounded on all sides by groups who submitted to the Mexica and paid allegiance and tribute to their Aztecs overlords, the Tlaxcalan nation lived in the shadow of the Aztec Empire for two centuries. The Tlaxcalans also became major rivals of their neighbors to the south in Cholula.
The map on the following page shows Tlaxcala as one of three independent enclaves that were surrounded by the Aztec Empire in 1519 and also illustrates how close Tlaxcala was to its Aztec rival, Tenochtitlán. The map also shows the location of the Aztec Empire’s three major cities (The Triple Alliance: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan) [Source: Comandante, Wikipedia U. E. “Aztec Empire.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Online: https://www.ancient.eu/image/2321/ (Last modified February 26, 2014)].
Although they were blockaded by the Aztecs, the Tlaxcalan Republic never yielded to the superior power. By 1519, Tlaxcala was a small, densely populated province with a population of about 150,000. Tlaxcala was actually a “confederation of four republics,” ruling over some 200 settlements. Some historians believe that Tenochtitlán could have overwhelmed Tlaxcala without too much difficulty, and the reason it did not is probably that it wanted a nearby source of victims for the human sacrifices. Therefore the Aztecs maintained an almost perpetual state of war with Tlaxcala, but never actually conquered it. Also, the Aztecs seem to have regarded the frequent battles with the Tlaxcalans as a convenient way of testing and training the young Mexica warriors.
The Spaniards Meet the Totonacs (1519)
The Totonacs were the first natives in present-day Puebla and Veracruz whom Captain Hernán Cortés met on landing on the Gulf Coast of Mexico in 1519. According to their own traditions, the Totonac had come from the northwest nearly eight centuries earlier, and had maintained an independent kingdom until subjugated by the Aztecs only about 25 years before the arrival of the Spaniards. The Aztecs forced the Totonacs to pay heavy tribute, including the seizure of their people for slaves and sacrifice in the bloody Aztec rites. As a result, they were sufficiently seasoned for revolt and their King, Chicomacatt, eagerly welcomed Cortés and the Spaniards, promising the support of his fifty thousand warriors to be used against the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma.
The Spaniards Arrive in Tlaxcala
The state of perpetual war with the Aztecs had caused great resentment among the Tlaxcalans and by the time Cortés and the Spaniards arrived in Tlaxcala in August 1519, the confederation represented fertile grounds for an anti-Mexica alliance. However, the Tlaxcalans, very suspicious of the strangers, were in no mood to accommodate the Spaniards and their Indian allies. The Spaniards and Tlaxcalans fought several battles, after which their new-found respect for each other gave birth to an alliance that would bring down the Aztec Empire within two years.
The Road to Cholula
The Spanish forces rested at Tlaxcala and became acquainted with their new Tlaxcalan allies before moving on to Tenochtitlán. The most direct road to the Aztec capital went through Cholula and emissaries sent by Moctezuma urged the Spanish to go through there, but Cortes’ new Tlaxcalan allies warned the Spanish leader that the Cholulans were treacherous and that Moctezuma would ambush them somewhere near the city.
The Conquest (1519-1521)
On October 12, 1519, Cortés and his forces left Tlaxcala, arriving in Cholula two days later. Although the Spaniards were allowed to enter the city, the Tlaxcalan warriors were forced to remain outside the great city. Eventually, suspecting treachery and an ambush, Cortés and his men massacred more than 6,000 Cholulans in the city of 100,000. After the massacre, the Spaniards’ Tlaxcalan allies sacked Cholula. The slaughter struck terror into the surrounding communities and sent a powerful message to other potential enemies of the Spaniards. Soon, the Spaniards, the Tlaxcalans and Totonacs continued their journey toward Tenochtitlán
Initially, following their great defeat at “La Noche Triste” (The Night of Sorrows) on June 30, 1520, the Spaniards and Tlaxcalans were routed and sent fleeing from Tenochtitlán. But, during the second half of 1520, while retreating from the seat of power, Cortés and his indigenous allies began carrying out punitive expeditions against various Aztec garrisons in Puebla, attacking Huejotzingo (16 kilometers — 10 miles northwest of Cholula) and Acatzingo (54 kilometers — 34 miles east of Puebla City). In addition to intimidating the local populace, the Spaniards also endeavored to secure the safety of their route to the Gulf Coast and the newly-founded port at Veracruz.
Later in the year, the Spaniards also attacked and seized control of the Aztecs towns of Tepeaca (43 kilometers — 27 miles southeast of Cholula) and Izúcar de Matamoros, located in the southwestern part of Puebla. With these victories, most of the indigenous peoples of Puebla fell in line with Cortés and joined forces with the Spaniards in their march back to Tenochtitlán. Finally, on August 13, 1521, after several decisive battles and an eighty-day siege, Tenochtitlán surrendered and the Spaniards announced their victory over the Aztec Empire.
La Puebla de Los Angeles (1531)
With the destruction of the Aztec Empire, the territories within it devolved to the control of the Spaniards. The Spaniards razed Cholula’s many temples and replaced them with Catholic churches. And, instead of rebuilding the ancient city, they decided to build a new city in a different location, about 15 kilometers (nine miles) to the east.
Thus, on April 16, 1531, the Spaniards established “La Puebla de Los Angeles” in a place known to the natives as Cuetlaxcoapan, located between Cholula and Tlaxcala. Legend has it that a band of angels appeared to Bishop Julian Garcés, one of the founders, pointing out where to situate the new city. The new city of Puebla thus became the first Spanish-built city in central Mexico not founded on the ruins of a conquered indigenous community. It also served as an outpost to control the native groups in the region.
Due to its convenient location halfway between Veracruz and Mexico City, Puebla became a frequent stop for travelers and its population grew rapidly. Puebla increased in importance as a center for industry and agriculture during the 17th century. Diseases spread by the Spaniards and poor living conditions, however, caused a major decline in its indigenous population.
Colonial Puebla
In 1524, the Spanish crown gave the conquistadors grants known as encomiendas, which authorized them to force area natives into servitude. As a result, the indigenous peoples were put to work in agriculture and mining for the benefit of Spain. One requirement of the encomienda system was the propagation of the Roman Catholic faith, so Franciscan priests went to work converting the native population.
Although the Totonacs had been allies of the Spaniards, over time the Spaniards eventually brought an end to their governing structure and reduced the Totonac and the related Tepehua communities into “congregaciones.” As a result, large parcels of land were left to the disposal of the Spaniards who, over time, developed the estates into sugar and livestock haciendas.
The conditions of subjugation that developed eventually led the Totonacs to rebel against the Mexican Government after independence from Spain. In 1836-38, Mariano Olarte led an Indian revolt in eastern Hidalgo and the Northern Puebla Sierra.
Indigenous Puebla in 1790
In 1790, a census in colonial Puebla revealed that 427,382 people lived within its boundaries, of which:
332,213 were indios (representing 78% of the population)
56,592 were mestizos (representing 13% of the population)
38,677 were Españoles (Spaniards) or other Europeans (representing 9% of the population)
Many of the larger towns of the Puebla jurisdiction had significant populations of Indians, including Tehuacán (87%), Zacatlán (85%) and Cholula (87%), while mestizos had significant representation in a few places, including Guachinango (19%). On the other hands, the Spaniards and/or Europeans had very little representation in most of Puebla. Only in Tepeaca did the Europeans represent 20% of the population.
Indigenous Puebla (1895-1910)
The 1895 Mexican census indicated that there were at least 313,169 speakers of indigenous languages five years of age or more living in the state of Puebla. This large population group represented 32% of the state population of 984,413, which made Puebla the state with the fourth largest percentage of indigenous speakers, after Yucatán (64%), Campeche (51%) and Oaxaca (48%).
The Náhuatl Language in 1895
The Mexican Census of 1895 provides us with our first window into the usage of the Náhuatl language in the entire Mexican Republic. As revealed in the following graphic, 37% of the Náhuatl speakers in the entire country lived in the State of Puebla, and 53.5% lived in either Puebla or Veracruz.
Fifteen years later, in 1910, Puebla’s indigenous speaking population had dropped significantly to 188,340, bringing the percentage down to 17.1%, and making it the state with the eighth largest percentage of indigenous speakers.
The 1921 Census
In the unusual 1921 Mexican census, residents of each state were asked to classify themselves in several categories, including “indígena pura” (pure indigenous), “indígena mezclada con blanca” (indigenous mixed with white) and “blanca” (white). Out of a total state population of 1,024,955:
560,971 persons (or 54.7%) claimed to be of pure indigenous background
403,221, or 39.3% – classified themselves as being mixed
58,032 (5.7%) claimed to be white.
Thus, in a period of 131 years from 1790 to 1921, the indigenous population of Puebla dropped from about 78% to almost 55%. But the population of speakers of indigenous languages was even smaller. Of the 880,813 persons five years of age and older in Puebla, 247,392 individuals spoke indigenous languages, representing 28.1% of that population group. So, while more than half (54.7%) of Puebla’s population identified itself as “indigena pura,” slightly over one-quarter (28.1%) actually spoke indigenous languages.
2010 Census
In the 2010 census, the Mexican states with the largest populations of indigenous speakers five years of age or older (by number) were:
Oaxaca – 1,165,186 indigenous speakers (34.2% of the total population)
Chiapas – 1,141,499 indigenous speakers (27.2% of the state population)
Veracruz – 644,559 indigenous speakers (9.4% of the state population)
Puebla – 601,680 indigenous speakers (11.7% of the state population)
The 601,680 indigenous speakers in Puebla ranked the state fourth behind Oaxaca (1,165,186), Chiapas (1,141,499) and Veracruz (644,559) in terms of its absolute indigenous speaking population. With 11.7% of its population speaking indigenous languages, Puebla was ranked eighth among the Mexican states for its percentage of indigenous speakers.
Most Commonly Spoken Languages in 2010
The most commonly spoken languages in Puebla among persons who were three years of age and older in 2010 were:
Náhuatl — 447,797 speakers (72.5% of the population 3 years or more)
Totonaca — 106,559 speakers (17.3% of the population 3 years or more)
Popoloca — 16,576 speakers (2.7% of the population 3 years or more)
Mazateco — 16,045 speakers (2.6% of the population 3 years or more)
Otomí — 8,934 speakers (1.4% of the population 3 years or more)
Mixteco — 8,288 speakers (1.3% of the population 3 years or more)
Zapoteco — 1,585 speakers (0.3% of the population 3 years or more)
Mexicans Considered Indigenous (2010)
The 2010 census also included a question that asked people if they considered themselves indigenous, whether or not an indigenous language was spoken. The results of this question indicated that 15.7 million persons 3 years of age and older in Mexico identified themselves as “indigenous.” In this respect, Puebla ranked sixth with 25.2% of its persons 3 years of age and more who considered themselves indigenous, putting it behind Yucatán (62.7%), Oaxaca (58.0%), Quintana Roo (33.8%), Chiapas (32.7%), Campeche (32.0%) and Hidalgo (30.1%).
Thus, over a period of 220 years, the indigenous population of Puebla had dropped from 78% in 1790 to 55% in 1921 and finally to just over 25% (or one-quarter) in 2010.
Municipios with Indigenous Populations
Of Puebla’s 217 municipios, 26 have indigenous populations of 90% or more and 41 have indigenous populations of 80% or more. And, all told, nearly one quarter of Puebla’s municipios – 54 in all – have an indigenous population of 50% or more.
The Náhuatl Languages of Puebla
The Náhuatl people are the single largest indigenous group in Puebla and in the entire Mexican Republic. Although Nahuas live in all the states of the Mexican Republic, each of the 28 or so Náhuatl languages and dialects has developed unique characteristics depending on its environmental conditions. At the time of the Spanish contact, Náhuatl-speaking Indians inhabited several regions of Puebla. Today at least eleven Náhuatl languages are still spoken in various parts of Puebla. Some of these Nahua languages are mutually unintelligible because of successive migrations of people from different cultures over a period of two or three centuries, and many of these Nahuas maintain their strong cultural roots and cherish their language.
The most common Náhuatl languages in Puebla include the Central Náhuatl, the Eastern Huasteca and the Central Puebla. The Nahuas who live in the northern mountain ranges of Puebla are known as the “Nahuas de la Sierra Norte de Puebla” (they call themselves Macehuale). There are about 100,000 Sierra Náhuatl living in nineteen municipios that lie within triangle that is marked by Teziutlán, Cuetzalán del Progreso, and Tetela de Ocampo. The Sierra Negra Náhuatl and Southern Puebla Náhuatl languages are spoken in southern Puebla.
The following map shows the location of the four Náhuatl variant languages of Puebla [Akapoehtli, “Mapa del Norte de Puebla Donde se Muestran las Cuatro Variantes más Representativas de la Zona” (August 17, 2016)].
Totonacas (Northern Puebla)
The Totonaca — who were discussed earlier in this report — continue to live in the northern part of Puebla, as well as parts of Veracruz. Today, there are seven Totonaca languages that are almost equally divided between Veracruz and Puebla. Totonaca is the eighth most common language spoken in the Mexican Republic today. In 2010, 126,000 people living in both Puebla and Veracruz spoke the Totonac language. In fact, Totonac is second only to Náhuatl as the most commonly spoken language in both Puebla and Jalisco (17.3% of all indigenous speakers in Puebla and 18.2% of all indigenous speakers in Veracruz).
Tepehuas (East Puebla)
Tepehua, a tribe belonging to the Totonacan linguistic stock, occupy a small territory where the Mexican States of Veracruz, Hidalgo, and Puebla come together. Tepehua is generally considered to consist of three languages—Pisaflores, Huehuetla, and Tlachichilco—while the Totonac branch is considerably more diverse.
The Popoloca Language (Southern Puebla)
Speakers of the Popolocan language are found primarily in southern Puebla, southeastern Veracruz (near the border with Tabasco) and in a small part of Oaxaca. The name Popoloca was applied by speakers of Náhuatl and means “barbarian, unintelligible language.” Popoloca, Chocho and Mazatec form the Popolocan language family, which belongs to the Otomanguean phylum. Popoloca should not be confused with Popoluca, a language spoken in the state of Veracruz, which belongs to the Mixe-Zoque phylum.
The Popoloca of Puebla are closely related in terms of language and culture to the Chocho (Ngigua) people of northern Oaxaca. The ancestors of the Popolocas probably emerged as a distinct ethnic group between 900-200 BC. When the Popolocas were at the height of their political power, after 700 AD, their territory covered much of central and southern Puebla, as well as parts of Tlaxcala, Guerrero and northern Oaxaca. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Aztecs advanced into and conquered the Popoloca territories. As tribute, the Popoloca chiefs were required to send blue and black cotton textiles, lime, deerskins, and canes used for atlatl shafts to Tenochtitlán.
Today, Popolocas live in three non-contiguous regions of southern Puebla. Geographic and cultural isolation has led to great linguistic diversity among them, with at least seven regional variations of the Popoloca language spoken today, several in only one town. Although Popoloca is the third-most spoken tongue in Puebla, less than 3% of the indigenous speakers in the state speak the language.
Mazatecos (Western Puebla)
The Mazatecos primarily live in the Sierra Madre Oriental of northern Oaxaca, but some of them also resides in parts of Puebla, Veracruz and Guerrero. The Mazatec language belongs to the Popolocan branch of the Otomanguean family. The Mazatecos of Oaxaca and Puebla had been subdued by the Mexica around 1455-56 and the Aztecs had established garrisons in their territory at Teotitlán and Tuxtepec, to where the Mazatecos directed their tribute. The Mazatecos quickly submitted to Spanish rule after the fall of the Aztec Empire.
In 1954 the construction of a system of dams over the effluents of the Río Papaloapan (Río de las Mariposas) in Oaxaca forced the relocation of 12% of the Mazatecos to Veracruz and Puebla. Although the Mazatec is the fourth most commonly spoken language in Puebla, only 3% of the indigenous speakers in the state speak this tongue.
The Puebla Economy in 2016
The state of Puebla has a very strategic location in Mexico, 120 kilometers (75 miles) from Mexico City and about 300 kilometers (186 miles) from the international port of Veracruz. The state’s most important sectors include automotive and auto parts, chemicals, plastics, apparel, furniture, mining, fresh and processed foods and information technologies. The three largest contributors to Puebla’s gross domestic product (GDP) of 634 billion pesos in 2016 were manufacturing (25%), wholesale and retail trade (18.5%) and real estate and rental and leasing (14%).
In 2016, Puebla had a workforce of 2.7 million, of which:
25% were involved in agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting
18% were engaged in commerce
17% were engaged in manufacturing
In respect to the national level, Puebla represented 9.9% of Mexico’s workers in the agricultural sector and 4.9% in commerce. Agricultural production, cattle-raising and industry continue to be important elements of Puebla’s economy. However, because indigenous cultures are alive and well in most of Puebla, the state was and remains an integral part of Mexico’s indigenous past – as well as its future.
Individual local histories of the Puebla municipios can be accessed at:
http://siglo.inafed.gob.mx/enciclopedia/EMM21puebla/index.html
Copyright © 2019, by John P. Schmal. All rights reserved.
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