The Indigenous Legacy of Sinaloa

The State of Sinaloa

The Northwestern Mexican state of Sinaloa is best known for its rich agricultural lands, delicious seafood, and the traditional music of Banda Sinaloense. Its geography consists of several rivers carving through subtropical dry forests, coastal beaches along the Gulf of California and the Sierra Madre Occidental Mountain range to the east. Its population consists of over 3 million residents of diverse backgrounds.  Sinaloa's culture reflects a blend of influences, not only by Spanish settlers, but also from German, Chinese, Italians and other immigrants that became part of its society. However, the state's indigenous roots are often overlooked, despite their lasting impact on Sinaloa's identity. The etymology of some of the most recognized places in Sinaloa have indigenous names from various languages, such as the state name itself Sinaloa (Cáhita), the capital city of Culiacán (Náhuatl), the port resort city of Mazatlán (Náhuatl), and the agricultural city of Los Mochis (Cáhita). It has also been theorized as a possible location of the Mexica/Aztec homeland of Aztlan, represented in the state seal.

Figure 1. Seal of Sinaloa at the Central de Autobuses Culiacán, Sinaloa Photo by Jonathan Rodriguez.

Indigenous Sinaloa

Indigenous Sinaloa was drastically transformed from the conquest, genocide, epidemics, missionization and mestizaje that took place under Spanish colonial rule. Over time, Sinaloa saw an influx of settlers, including not only Castilians, but also Basques, Africans, Purepechas and Nahuas from central Mexico. As time progressed Sinaloa became one of the most Mestizo (mixed) states in all the Republic. Today, the Mayos (Yoremes) are the only native culture of Sinaloa who were in the region before the arrival of the Spaniards. However, several indigenous groups from other Mexican states have also migrated to Sinaloa in recent decades. This article will examine Sinaloa's rich Indigenous heritage and the transformation it has undergone over the centuries.

The First Traditions

Following the Archaic period over 10,000 years ago, the agricultural period emerged in Sinaloa around 1500 BC and lasted until 150 AD. Sinaloa's soil supported the cultivation of various crops, including maize, beans and cotton. Between 300 BC and 150 AD, three distinct ceramic traditions developed: Huatabampo, Serrana, and Aztatlán. The Huatabampo Culture extended from the Rio Yaqui in Sonora to the Rio Mocorito in Sinaloa. The Serrana culture occupied the foothills of the Sierra Occidental in Sonora to Northern Sinaloa and into the Rio Fuerte Valley. Meanwhile, the Aztatlán tradition originated in Amapa, Nayarit, and later expanded south to Bahía de Banderas Jalisco and north to the area of Guamuchil Sinaloa (Carpenter and Sanchez 2014).

Figure 2. Map of the First Traditions in Sinaloa by Jonathan Rodriguez.

The Influence of Mesoamerican Culture on Sinaloa

As these cultures flourished in Sinaloa, they were influenced by Mesoamerica, which is evident in their trade, pottery styles, architecture, and ball games.  Sinaloa likely served as a major trade route between the American Southwest and central Mesoamerica during the Classic period. That trade route extended from Culiacán to El Fuerte, following the Sierra Occidental to Buenavista in Sonora and crossing into Chihuahua at Paquime and then north into Arizona and New Mexico.  The early ceramic cultures eventually became the ancestors of the Indigenous people encountered by the conquistadors in 1529. Among them, only the descendants of the Aztatlán tradition would be considered Mesoamerican due to their lifestyle. For this reason, much of Sinaloa, up to the Rio Mocorito, is recognized as part of Mesoamerica. (Carpenter 1996)

Early Sixteenth Century Sinaloa

At the time of Spanish arrival in 1529, Sinaloa had over 20 different native groups with an estimated population of over 700,000 making Sinaloa one of the most populated pre-Spanish contacted areas north of central Mexico. These groups had diverse ways of life; many relied on agriculture and hunted along Sinaloa's riverbanks, while others lived solely as hunter-gatherers. Most of these groups were Uto-Aztecan speakers, a language family which consists of many related languages through a large part of the U.S. and Mexico. A few other groups spoke languages that were either unrelated or possibly Uto-Aztecan.  Some scholars classify them as Uto-Aztecan, while others propose they were Hokan speakers, belonging to a different family language. It is considered neutral to categorize them as unclassified languages due to the lack of documentation (Reff 1991, Carpenter 1996).

Figure 3. Map of the Cultures of Sinaloa at the Spanish contact. By Jonathan Rodriguez.

The Totorames and Tahues

The Totorames and Tahues, compared to the other groups in Sinaloa, were Mesoamerican cultures. They lived in large agricultural urban centers and controlled various pueblos and villages, with each having a combined population of nearly 200,000, all paying tribute to their rulers. The Totorames were located along the coast of Northern Nayarit to the Rio Piaxtla in Southern Sinaloa. One of the main pueblos of the Totorames in Sinaloa was Chametla. The Tahues were in central Sinaloa from the Rio Paxtla to the Rio Mocorito, with the main pueblo at Culiacán. Despite both being Uto-Aztecan speakers, the Tahues and Totorames belonged to two different branches of the language family. The Tahues were part of the Cáhita branch, while the Totorames were part of the Corachol branch. The two languages were not mutually intelligible (Reff 1991, Carpenter 1996).

Other Cáhita Groups

Another Cáhita-speaking group closely related to the Tahues was the Mocorito, who settled along the Rio Mocorito Valley. North of the Mocorito were the Comanito, Bacapa, Cahuameto, and Chicorato who inhabited the foothills. In the Northwest, other Cáhita groups such as the Zuaques, Tehuceos, Sinaloas, along with non-Cáhita cultures like the Ocoronis , Zoe, and Huite  inhabited different sections of rivers in Northern Sinaloa. Further north into Sonora, more Cáhita cultures were present such as the Baciroa, Macoyahui, Topichiz, Conicari, Tepague, and the Mayo along the Rio Mayo. The Yaquis were the northernmost Cáhita group living along the Rio Yaqui. While the Mayos may have resided near the modern day border of Sonora and Sinaloa, their principal settlement was in the Rio Mayo Valley. Together, the Northern Sinaloa Cáhita speakers had a combined population of over 200,000 (Reff 1991, Carpenter 1996).

Along the Sinaloa-Durango Sierra other Cáhitas such as the Acaxees, Tebaca, Bacapa, and Pacaxe were present. South of these groups were the Xiximes, Humes, and Sobaibo whose languages belong to an unclassified family.  These Sierra people perhaps had a combined estimated population of near 60,000. Other unclassified languages in Sinaloa include the Achires, Gausaves, Tamazulas, Ahomes, Batucari (Vacoregue), Comopori, and Nio who inhabited the northern coastal region of Sinaloa. There have been suggestions that these unclassified people were Cáhitas or even Hokan-speakers. Their combined population was likely over 22,000  (Reff 1991, Carpenter 1996).

The Spanish Contact: Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán

After the fall of the Aztecs in 1521, news of Hernan Cortes’ victory reached Spain, leading to other Spaniards wanting to obtain the same glory and wealth that Cortes had. Among these individuals was Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán. Guzmán arrived in Mexico in 1527, and a year later Cortes returned to Spain to report to the King of Spain. In 1529, Guzmán was appointed the President of the Royal Court of New Spain. He turned his attention to the Pacific, in search of his glory and gold.  That same year, he led an expedition out of Mexico City of about 400 conquistadors and 7,000 Indigenous auxiliary troops, including Mexicas/Aztecs, Tlaxcaltecas, Acolhuas, and Huejozincos.

In 1530, they arrived in Michoacan. where Guzman ordered the torture and death of the Purépecha ruler Tangaxuan II despite his submission to Spain years earlier. Purépecha forces were also demanded to join the expedition further north into Jalisco, Nayarit and Sinaloa. Guzman’s expeditions consisted of organized slave raids on the native population. He and his forces also demanded gold, stole food, and razed towns, all of which left widespread devastation in their wake. The local population starved and were left to deal with epidemics. Even Guzmán’s native forces were reportedly treated with great cruelty. Some attempted to escape, but those who were captured were hanged for insubordination (Reff 1991, Regalado Pinedo 2021).

Figure 4. The Route of Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán by Jonathan Rodriguez.

By late 1530, after batting the Totorames of Nayarit, Guzmán was welcomed by the Totorames of Chametla in modern day Sinaloa.  However, tensions among them led to a battle which resulted in a victory for Guzmán. Months later, as they were making their way to Culiacán, they encountered the Tahues and another battle occurred. After Guzmán’s victory, the preexisting Tahue pueblo would be renamed to San Miguel de Culiacán which would serve as an outpost to conduct slave raids (Reff 1991).  The original names of these pueblos are unknown as their Totorame and Tahue names were replaced by Nahuatl and Spanish names (Moctezuma 2021). 

Figure 5. The Battles of Chametla (Left) and Culiacan (Right) from the Lienzo de Tlaxcala.

Guzmán’s expedition was now so exhausted that he turned his attention south and he journeyed back to Nayarit and Jalisco.  His cruel treatment of the natives did not stop, and soon he established more Spanish settlements such as Guadalajara. He created the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia which encompassed all the territory he had conquered so far. Guzmán also ordered new scouting parties to go further north to explore Sinaloa and the surrounding regions. 

Diego de Guzmán and Other Explorers

In 1533, Diego Guzmán, the nephew of Nuño, set forth on an expedition to continue his uncle’s legacy. He left Culiacán with an unknown number of Spanish soldiers and Indian auxiliaries. Any native village they encountered that refused to pay tribute was enslaved under Guzmán’s command. They would encounter various cultures living along the river valleys of the Rio Mocorito, Rio Sinaloa, Rio Fuerte, and Rio Mayo, and reported that many of these villages were sizeable. But many of the villages were abandoned as the natives fled from Guzmán’s forces.

Eventually, Diego's army reached the banks of the Rio Yaqui in Sonora where they encountered the Yaquis. A battle ensued causing Diego's army to retreat. Guzmán’s army continued to search further into Sonora, reaching the Pima territory in the north. However, they found no riches and returned to Culiacán empty-handed. Upon his return, Guzmán found out the natives had rebelled and killed many of the Spanish residents. Many of these natives retreated to the Sierra Madre Mountains to the east to avoid future Spaniard encounters. The Spaniards’ raids would continue north of Culiacán. News of the destruction that was occurring in Sinaloa went unnoticed for years (Reff 1991).

The Journey of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca Ends

The astonishing shipwreck journey of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three other survivors reported what was happening in Sinaloa. After eight years of being shipwrecked off the coast of Texas and traveling by foot to Sinaloa, Cabeza de Vaca and four other companions encountered various tribes. It was in 1536 that Cabeza de Vaca finally encountered a Spaniard during a slave raid in Sinaloa. He documented the cruel disregard of native life that he witnessed in the region. Having lived among the natives for years, he developed great sympathy for them and assisted in a key role in establishing peace in an ongoing rebellion in Sinaloa that had already lasted for three years. 

Nuño de Guzmán is Punished For His Crimes

In 1536 the four survivors then continued to Mexico City and revealed what they witnessed. Karma had finally reached Nuño de Guzmán, who was summoned back to Mexico City. After years of ongoing investigations into Guzmán’s atrocities and the killing of the Purépecha King back in 1530, Nuño de Guzmán was finally punished for his crimes and sent back to Spain in 1537. Culiacán would continue serving as a starting point for many Spanish expeditions into Northwestern Mexico and the Southwestern USA, including those led by Fray Marcos de Niza, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado and Francisco de Ibarra (Reff 1991).

Sinaloa under Spanish Rule

As the Spanish expeditions continued to be sent out from Culiacán, the populations of the Tahues and Totorames in Central and Southern Sinaloa were greatly devastated from genocide and disease. As Sinaloa was transformed under Spanish rule, Spanish institutions and diseases such as smallpox and measles ravaged the native population. By the 17th century, more than 10 different waves of epidemics hit Sinaloa, affecting the rest of the Indigenous Sinaloa population (Reff 1991). In addition to the epidemics, Spanish institutions took their toll on the native population. Eventually, Nahua settlers from central Mexico established various communities in the Tahue, Totorame and Cáhita territories (Moctezuma 2021).

Encomiendas, or forced labor systems, were established in over 30 pueblos including Chametla, Escuinapa, Culiacan, Cosala, Quila, Navolato, Mazatlan, Mocorito, Tamazula. Guasave, and San Felipe y Santiago de Sinaloa (Carpenter 1996).  Presidios were also established in Sinaloa to conduct operations to subdue the native population. In the 1590’s, the criollo Capitan Diego Martínez de Hurdaide began his operations against the Sinaloas, Tehuecos, Zuaques and Ahome from the Presidio at San Felipe y Santiago. Soon Missionization took place under the direction of the Jesuits who converted and baptized tens of thousands of natives to Catholicism (Reff 1991).

Figure 6.  The Mission of Mocorito, Sinaloa,  Parroquia de La Inmaculada Concepción, founded in 1594. Photo by Jonathan Rodriguez.

The Success of the Jesuits

The Jesuits of Sinaloa and Southern Sonora have been viewed as some of the most successful in the conversion process. This has been credited to their willingness to learn about the native culture, utilization of the native languages, and incorporating elements of the local native beliefs in Christianity, as opposed to the Franciscans. The Jesuits established numerous missions among the native people along the Rio Fuerte, Rio Sinaloa, and Rio Mocorito. Náhuatl was even spoken as a lengua franca in many of these communities as it was thought to help bridge the language barrier of the Sinaloa languages. Many of these towns spoke three languages: the local Cáhita language, Náhuatl and Spanish (Moctezuma 2021). The mission system of the Jesuits in Sinaloa is shown in the following map.

Figure 7. Mission System of Sinaloa. Map by Jonathan Rodriguez.

The work of the Jesuits was brought to the attention of the Mayos of Sonora who eventually welcomed the missionaries into Mayo country. Relations with the Mayos improved after a treaty was established in 1609, as Hurdaide’s forces agreed to protect them. Five years later, missions in the Rio Mayo valley were established.  A big surprise came in 1617 when the Yaquis also welcomed the Jesuits, inviting them to come into their territory and learn their ways. This came after years of ongoing battles between the Yaquis and Hurdaide’s forces (who had been defeated on multiple occasions) (Reff 1991).

Because of their success with the Mayos, the Jesuits spread the Mayo language into neighboring areas of Sinaloa, as they began using it among the Tehuecos, Zuaques, Sinaloas and the Ahome (Moctezuma 2021). However, missionization would not simply end hostilities as conflicts did continue as a result of more devastating epidemics, Spanish encroachment, and the discovery of mines. These problems intensified the relations between the Spanish and native populations. Throughout the 16th to 18th centuries, there were multiple native rebellions in Sinaloa and nearby areas, most notably the Tahue Revolts (1539-1540) Tehueco Rebellion (1563) Acaxee Rebellion (1601-1607) Tepehuán Revolt (1616-1620) and Yaqui-Mayo Revolt (1740) (Reff 1991, Carpenter 1996).

Population Decline

Epidemics continued to ravage Sinaloa, which contributed to the loss of so many cultures.  By 1675, it is estimated that the Tahue population declined from 200,000 to 20,000. By 1671, it was just 1,250. Meanwhile, the Totorames were reduced from 200,000 to 2,000 by 1575. The 220,000 estimated population of Cáhita in Northern Sinaloa was reduced to 70,000 in 1625 and 15,000 in 1790. By 1678, the Acaxees were at 816 and Xiximes were at 2,388. The Guasave were at 651, Tamazula at 589, and Ahome at 501 by 1759. Meanwhile in Sonora, the Mayo population reportedly declined to 6,000, and Yaquis were at 12,000 by 1767 (Reff 1991).

However, it is essential to understand that countless natives fled Spanish settlements for the mountains. In addition, industries like ranching, fishing, and mining attracted or forced natives to leave these their native regions.  While missions did provide some protection from forced labor, the mission system changed when the Jesuits were expelled from the Americas in 1767.   

Eventually, Náhuatl and many of these Cáhita languages were replaced by Spanish. The Zuaques, Tehuecos, and Sinaloa appear to have adopted a Mayo identity, possibly for protection with intermarriages between the groups resulting in three modern day Mayo dialects (Moctezuma 2021).

Sinaloa under Mexico

Near the 19th century, the indigenous population of the areas in Maloya-Copala-El Rosario was at 3,400, Culiacan at 5,000, and Sinaloa at 15,000 in 1790 (Ortega Noriega 2010). By this time, it appears that most of the native groups were integrated into Mestizo society. It is likely that their offspring would just identify as an “Indio” or “India,” which resulted in losing their connection to their exact native culture. It could also be suggested that the Sinaloa natives also mixed with incoming natives that came from other parts of Mexico.

When the Mexican War of Independence broke out in 1810 and lasted until 1821, the Cáhitas for the most part remained neutral, However, the new Mexican nation would greatly affect the Cahitas for centuries to come.  In late 1821, Mexico adopted the Plan of Iguala, which established citizenship to all residents, which meant that the indigenous people would become Mexican citizens. While this may be seen as a progressive move to include equal political and social rights to all Mexicans,  it also allowed the Mexican government to impose taxes on the Mayos and Yaquis.

Tensions Between the Sonoran Government and the Yaquis

The Spanish were unsuccessful in integrating the Yaquis and Mayos under a tax system, so naturally, tensions grew when Mexico enforced taxes. Multiple rebellions were started by the Yaquis who wanted a self-autonomy within their own territory. Some of these notable rebellions were led by Juan Banderas in 1825-1827, and 1833 in which he sought an alliance with not only the Mayos but also the Opatas and Pimas. Decades later, another Yaqui leader, Cajeme, with the support of the Mayos, led his rebellion from 1882-1887 (Spicer 1980).

Porfirio Díaz and the Yaquis: Conflict and Deportation

Tensions between the Yaquis and the Sonoran Government continued to deteriorate. This deterioration was aggravated by President Porfirio Díaz, who saw the Yaquis as a major threat to Mexican progress. As more conflicts occurred, a solution to deal with the Yaquis was to deport them to southern Mexico. During the 1900’s, the Yaquis were targeted, as were other natives in the area (such as the Mayos). The people of Mexico, however, had grown tired of Diaz’s grip on Mexico, and his 35 years of presidency ended soon after the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910.  Both Yaquis and Mayos participated in many different fractions during the war. Most notably, Álvaro Obregón who grew up in the Mayo Valley enlisted many Mayos to fight for his cause. It wasn’t until about the 1930’s that tensions were eased among the Cáhitas (Spicer 1980).

Modern Sinaloa

In modern times, Sinaloa has multiple indigenous groups living throughout the state. The Mayos in Sinaloa, whose ancestors are most likely Tehueco, Zuaque, and Sinaloa, remain the only original group concentrated in the northern municipalities such as El Fuerte and Ahome. Yaquis, Tarahumaras, and Tepehuanes are also present in Sinaloa mostly in municipalities near their adjacent home states (Sonora, Chihuahua, and Durango). From a greater distance, groups like the Nahuas, Zapotecs, and Mixtecs have come to Sinaloa and are seen in the larger agricultural municipalities such as Culiacán and Navolato. Remarkably, the Mesoamerican ballgame Ulama, has survived and is still being played in the towns of Guasave, Nio, Bamoa, Guamuchil, Mocorito and Tamazula (Carpenter 1996).

Figure 8. The number of Native Speakers, Mayo Speakers, and Náhuatl Speakers in the Municipalities of Sinaloa. Map by Jonathan Rodriguez.

Present-Day Sinaloa

As of 2020, Sinaloa has over 35,000 indigenous speakers of which 10,985 speak Mayo (INEGI 2024).  Today, the Mayo language is in danger of decline as many youths are not learning their ancestral language. Lack of exposure, a growing globalized world, and fear of discrimination are seen as the biggest threats to preventing Mayo language growth. Even though Sinaloa has a considerable Indigenous legacy, these fears and concerns may prevent someone from learning about their ancestral culture and language. Today, the Mayos continue to honor their traditions, most notably their well-known dance, the deer dance, which is performed throughout the year in their communities.  More awareness and public exposure should allow for the Mayo culture to continue to grow as the Mayos and other native groups continue to contribute to Sinaloa society. 

References 

Moctezuma Zamarrón, José Luis. “La dinámica sociolingüística de las lenguas cahitas.” historia sociolingüística de méxico volumen 4 la diversidad de las situaciones sociolingüísticas, El Colegio de México. 2021, 2205–2260.

Moctezuma Zamarrón, José Luis, and Alejandro Aguilar Zeleny. Los Pueblos Indigenas del Noroeste Atlas Etnográfico . Mexico City, DF: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2013. 

Carpenter, John Philip. El Obligo en La Labor: Differentiation, Interaction and Integration in Prehispanic Sinaloa. Mexico. Ph.D. Thesis: The University of Arizona, 1996.

Carpenter, John and Sánchez, Guadalupe. “Interaction and integration on the Northern Aztatlán frontier in Sinaloa” 2014, 1–21. 

INEGI, Diversidad. Sinaloa. Accessed 2024. https://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/monografias/informacion/sin/poblacion/diversidad.aspx?tema=me&e=25.

Ortega Noriega, Sergio. Sinaloa: Historia breve. Ciudad de México: El Colegio de México, Fideicomiso Historia de las Américas : Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2010. 

Spicer, Edward H. “The Yaquis: A Cultural History” University of Arizona Press: 1980.

Reff, Daniel T. Disease, Depopulation and Culture Change in Northwestern New Spain, 1518-1764. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1991.

Regalado Pinedo, Aristarco. “. El Ejército de Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán.” Estudios  Militares  Mexicanos , Guadalajara Universidad de Guadalajara, , xi 2021. 17–40.